Islamic History through a ‘Civilizational Perspective’: Reading Alexander Knysh’s ‘Islam in Historical Perspective’

A Book Review of Islam in Historical Perspective (2025) by Professor Alexander Knysh

Alexander D. Knysh (b. 1957) is a renowned Russian-American scholar who is presently holding the position of Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Michigan, U.S. Professor Knysh’s research specialization lies in the history and development of Islamic thought, with a particular focus on Islamic mysticism (Sufism), Qur’anic studies, Islamic intellectual history, and modern Islamic/Islamist movements.

Among his scholarly contributions include works like Ibn Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition (1999), Al-Qushayri’s Epistle on Sufism (2007), Islamic Mysticism: A Short History (2010), Sufism: A New History of Islamic Mysticism (2017), and Islam in Historical Perspective (3rd edition, 2025). It is his latest work that will be the focus of this review, as a remarkable work recognized for its comprehensive coverage and thematic structure, detailed analysis and civilizational approach, proficient use of primary and contemporary sources and engaging discussions, making it an indispensable resource for those seeking a nuanced understanding of Islam, Muslims, and the Islamic tradition.

An Outline of Professor Knysh’s Book

First published in 2011 by Pearson (and later by Routledge), with second edition in 2017, Islam in Historical Perspective comprises of 24 chapters spanning over 640 pages. Each chapter features pedagogical tools, such as conclusions, questions to ponder, summary, and notes.

Knysh’s book provides a balanced understanding of “Islam’s evolution from its inception to the present day”, supported by carefully selected historical and scriptural evidence.¹ It explores Islam as a multifaceted “force and source of identity”, delving into “Muslim devotional practices, emotional responses to the revelation, artistic and intellectual creativity, and patterns of everyday existence.”¹ By analyzing Islamic history through a civilizational perspective, Knysh presents a nuanced and multifaceted exploration of Islamic history.

The book has received widespread acclaim for its comprehensive coverage and thematic structure. David Waines, Emeritus Professor of Islamic Studies at Lancaster University, described the first edition as a “formidable achievement” and praised it for Knysh’s adoption of a civilizational approach, which seamlessly weaves together historical, thematic, and cultural narratives. Similarly, Dr. Erik S. Ohlander of Indiana University and Dr. Younus Mirza of Allegheny College in the U.S. praised it for its “authoritatively written and astutely arranged comprehensive … [and] historically contextualized narrative” and for being an “intellectually stimulating, lucidly written work with excellent discussion questions,” respectively. This acclaim remains equally relevant, if not more so, for the thoroughly revised third edition.

Knysh’s take on “Multiplicity of approaches to the study of Islam”

In the Introduction, Knysh explores key themes such as “What is Islam?”, “Multiplicity of Approaches to the Study of Islam,” and “Islam as an Object of Interpretation and a Source of Meaning.” Scholars from diverse disciplines have developed various approaches to studying Islam, Muslims, and the Muslim world, past and present. Knysh states that the study of Islam, like any (other) religion or religious tradition, encompasses various analytical frameworks and methodological approaches.² He identifies five primary methodological approaches: viz., macro, micro, functional, pragmatic, and civilizational.³ In Knysh’s diction, the “macro approach” examines Islam’s “universal characteristics” by probing it as “an assemblage of sacred stories or myths, sacred personalities, times, and spaces” with the aim to reveal its “kinship with other religious traditions.”² In contrast, the “micro approach” focuses on the specific contexts and practices of Muslim societies, exploring how Islam is believed, observed and interpreted in a “particular Muslim community or ethnic group in a certain geographical area.” This approach, for Knysh, is usually pursued by social and cultural anthropologists working in this field.⁴

The pragmatic approach treats Islam as an ideological and political force that operates with distinct political and social structures. This approach, usually applied by sociologists and political scientists, investigates “Islam’s role as a means of political legitimization.”⁵ In the functional approach, Islam is studied “as a system of educational practices and as a social and psychological safety net.”⁵

Hodgsonian Impact on Interpreting Islamic History through a “Civilizational Perspective”

The civilizational approach, generally used by religious studies scholars, explores how Islam “shapes the cultural and spiritual lives of Muslim societies” by envisioning Islam as a “progressive” phenomenon which unfolds in space and time of “its foundational ideas that manifest themselves in all spheres of the activity of Muslims from their politics to theology, philosophy, and artistic self-expression.”⁵ This approach, in Knysh’s opinion, was “exemplified” by the American historian Marshall Hodgson (d. 1968) in his magnum opus The Venture of Islam:

“Religious studies scholars often envision Islam as a progressive unfolding in space and time of its foundational ideas that manifest themselves in all spheres of the activity of Muslims …. This comprehensive vision of Islam can be described as civilizational … exemplified by the American historian Marshall G. S. Hodgson (1922-1968) who explored Islam’s spiritual dimensions by showing how the Muslim faith encourages the faithful to shape the world according to Islamic principles. In the process, they create a global Islamic civilization that displays different, sometimes incompatible, ways of implementing Islam’s foundational ideas. The present book is inspired in part by Hodgson’s civilizational approach, because, despite its inevitable shortcomings, it is best suited to the task of providing a comprehensive account of Islam’s rise and development in time and space”.⁵

The contents of Knysh’s book, excluding the Introduction, can be divided into three major thematic parts:

1. Foundations of Islam and Emergence of Islamic Civilization: Chapters 1-8,
2. Islamic Beliefs, Institutions, and Schools of Thought: Chapters 9-18, and
3. Islam vis-à-vis Modern Developments and Challenges: Chapters 19-24.

The first eight chapters of Knysh’s book trace the historical development of Islam from its formative period through the Abbasid era, while also examining foundational sources such as the Quran and hadith, and addressing key topics such as the life of the Prophet (ﷺ) and the emergence of the Muslim community, early caliphal leadership, and the consolidation of religious authority.

(Mis)representations of the Prophet’s Seerah in Western Academia

Knysh’s second chapter encompasses several sub-sections that chronicle the Prophet’s life, from his birth to the Farewell Pilgrimage. This account is primarily based on Ibn Ishaq’s Sīrat Rasūl Allāh (The Life of Muhammad).⁶ He offers a historical overview of the Prophet’s life, while later in Chapter 19,⁷ he examines the Prophet’s message and its reception, alongside the misinterpretations that arose from Christian theological polemic and popular prejudice in both medieval and modern eras. Knysh further discusses how these long-standing biases have resurfaced in contemporary times, notably through the “caricatures of the Prophet” published by the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten in September 2005.⁸

Knysh’s analysis highlights key milestones in the Prophet’s life, including his lineage, early years, the initial Revelations, opposition from the Makkan elite, the Hijrah to Madina, and the formation of the Islamic Umma. It also examines his dual role as religious and political leader, covering major events such as the battles of Uhud and the Ditch, the Conquest of Mecca, and the Farewell Pilgrimage. The chapter concludes with a concise summary of the main themes.⁹

However, Knysh posits that there are two primary interpretations of the life of the Prophet: (i) a theological-legendary interpretation that emphasizes divine intervention and depicts him as the last Prophet of God, and (ii) an academic-historical interpretation that focuses on the historical context of his life.¹⁰ He primarily subscribes to the latter perspective while incorporating certain elements from the former to recount the Prophets narrative. He credits both historical conditions and Prophet Muhammad’s (ﷺ) exceptional leadership and charisma as key to the emergence of Islam. This integrated perspective provides a nuanced understanding of the Prophet’s role in reshaping Arabian society and the formation of the monotheistic community he established.¹⁰

He concludes by characterizing the significant religious reform and transformation initiated and effectively realized by the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) and his closest followers “as a truly unique event in the history of humankind.” This transformation not only radically altered the “entire pagan society of Arabia within a decade but also laid the essential groundwork for “a new religion, state, and culture.”¹¹

However, it is disturbing to see that throughout this book, Knysh frequently refers to Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) using the phrases such as ‘founder of Islam,’ ‘Islam and its founder,’ ‘founder of a new religious community and state’ and ‘founder of the Muslim religion.’¹² Take these statements as an illustration: “according to the Muslim historical tradition, Muhammad b. Abdallah, the founder of Islam, was born in Mecca, central-western Arabia, in the year 570 (italics mine);¹⁰ and “In the modern age, we observe numerous examples of the persistence of what Daniel calls the medieval canonical view of Islam and its founder” (italics mine).¹³

Though claiming to have employed “civilizational” approach to the history of Islam and things Islamic, Knysh’s terminology reflects a reductionist and Orientalist perspective that neglects Prophet Muhammad’s (ﷺ) divinely ordained mission and his role as the culmination of a prophetic tradition in Islamic theology. This is also contrary to his views on the Prophet’s dissemination of the divine message, which (in his opinion) not only resonated with the “audience from biblical narratives,” but was presented “not as something new, but rather as a restoration of the primordial monotheism of Abraham (Ibrahím) and the Hebrew and Christian prophets … including, Isaac (Is’haq), Jacob (Ya‘qúb), Moses (Músa), John the Baptist (Ýahya), and Jesus (‘Ísa) [AS].”¹⁴ This terminology also risks ‘secularizing the sacred,’ diminishing the Prophet’s spiritual and theological importance: thus, such portrayals align with what Mathew Dimmock, in his Mythologies of the Prophet Muhammad in Early Modern English Culture,¹⁵ described as “the misrepresentation of a biography.”

Knysh on Islamic Institutions, Thought, Beliefs, Practices, and Societies

Chapters 9-16 of this book delve into the development of Islamic scholarship, exploring various schools of thought, philosophy, and sects. These chapters cover topics like the rise and development of the schools of law (fiqh); theological debates and schools of thought; Twelver Shiism (Ithna ʿAshari) and Zaydism; the Ismailis; Sufism as an ascetic and mystical movement; philosophy versus theology as intellectual struggles in premodern Islam; and the transmission and conservation of knowledge—ʿulamaʾ, madrasas, and Sufi lodges. The latter three chapters (16–18) focus on basic beliefs and practices of Islam: Islamic life cycle; Islamic art and religious architecture (mosques); and women in Islamic societies, respectively.

Notably, Knysh dedicates the 18th chapter to “Women in Islamic Societies”¹⁶, examining their status and role in the Quran, Hadith, and Fiqh. He begins this chapter with the sub-heading ‘The Controversial Topic’ and states: “With the possible exception of ‘Islamic terrorism, it is difficult to find a subject that has generated more controversy in modern Western media and political speeches than the status of women in Islamic societies.”¹⁷ By citing extensive western media debate, he underscores its significance.

Representation of Islam vis-à-vis Modern Issues and Challenges

The final six chapters (19-24) provide an in-depth examination of Islam’s engagement with modernity in its various expressions. Chapter 19 explores historical and contemporary dynamics between Islam and the West, covering topics like the Crusades, Western prejudices towards Islam, and Islamic influence on European culture. Chapter 20 discusses Islam’s encounter with Modernity and European colonialism during the Gunpowder Empires era like the Ottomans, Safavids, and the Mughals, examining its impact on Islamic thought and societies.

Chapter 21 examines renewal and reform in Islam, and the emergence of diverse variants of Islamic Modernism and Reformism. These include the fundamentalist reformism of Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahab and the modernist reforms of Afghani, Abduh, Rida, and other major precepts of Islamic reform. This paves way for discussions on Islam as a political force and vehicle of opposition in chapter 22, illustrating its role in shaping political discourse and activism.

Chapter 23, ‘Islam Reinterpreted: Major Trends in Islamic Thought Today,’ showcases diverse perspectives and debates within the Islamic world, including Islamic liberalism and critiques of secular modernity. The final chapter provides insights into, and critically examines, the ideology and practice of ‘Globalized Jihadism,’ an extreme manifestation of Islamic ideology, concluding with reflections on the future of Islamist projects.¹⁸

Knysh’s Book in Sum

All in all, the book presents Islam as a dynamic series of “conversations and debates” among diverse Muslim interpretations, shaped by geographical and historical “circumstances”, with the aim, as Knysh mentions in the Introduction, “to show how Islam is being continually and often dramatically reshaped by its followers in response to their needs, grievances, and aspirations.”¹⁹ By highlighting “the richness, diversity and depth of the Islamic tradition” the author is hopeful to have “achieved its goal”of offering readers a nuanced understanding of Islam’s multifaceted nature.”²⁰

In conclusion, keeping shortcomings and disagreements aside, Knysh’s Islam in Historical Perspective is a remarkable reference work, distinguished by its comprehensive coverage, thematic structure, in-depth analysis, civilizational approach, lucid writing, effective use of primary and contemporary sources, stimulating discussions, and valuable modern pedagogical tools. This book is a comprehensive and indispensable resource for anyone seeking a nuanced understanding of Islam and its diverse traditions.

The first drafts of this review appeared in Greater Kashmir on May 22, 2025 and Kashmir Life on May 24, 2025.

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Photo by Ahmed Aldaie on Unsplash

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Works Cited:

1. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, p. i. [↩] [↩]
2. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 1. [↩] [↩]
3. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 1-3. [↩]
4. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 1-2. [↩]
5. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 2. [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩]
6. Ibn Hishām, ʿAbd al-Malik, and Muhammad Ibn Ishaq. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sīrat Rasūl Allāh. Translated by Alfred Guillaume, Oxford University Press, 1955. [↩]
7. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 413–442, especially pp. 427–434. [↩]
8. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 427, 432, 433. [↩]
9. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 40–41. [↩]
10. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 21. [↩] [↩] [↩]
11. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 39. [↩]
12. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 7, 21, 50, 125, 148, 365, 413, 427, 430, 431/ pp. 430, 431, 432, 433, 438/ pp. 114, 427. [↩]
13. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 432. [↩]
14. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 25-26. [↩]
15. Dimmock, Matthew. Mythologies of the Prophet Muhammad in Early Modern English Culture. Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. xii. [↩]
16. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 390-412. [↩]
17. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, pp. 390. [↩]
18. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, p. 588-89. [↩]
19. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, p. 4. [↩]
20. Knysh, Alexander. Islam in Historical Perspective. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2025, p. 590. [↩]